The Impact of Parental Leave Policy on Child-Rearing and Employment Behavior: The Case of Germany
| Oct 05, 2019
About this article
Published Online: Oct 05, 2019
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/izajolp-2019-0007
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© 2019 Serafima Chirkova, published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Public License.
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Average marginal effects for maternal childcare decision
| Leave year | Participation | Full-time | Part-time | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First year | 0.315*** | 0.321*** | 0.257*** | 0.269*** | 0.265*** | 0.262*** |
| (0.077) | (0.071) | (0.062) | (0.060) | (0.061) | (0.065) | |
| Second year | 1.066*** | 1.010*** | 1.295*** | 1.267*** | 1.233*** | 1.287*** |
| (0.244) | (0.253) | (0.244) | (0.252) | (0.233) | (0.236) | |
| Third year | 0.600 | 0.626* | 1.125*** | 0.832** | 0.798** | 0.587 |
| (0.489) | (0.343) | (0.146) | (0.411) | (0.381) | (0.381) |
Excess of demand to public childcare for children younger than three years, 2012–2015
| Region | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Baden-Württemberg | 13.7 | 13.9 | 11.4 | 11.0 |
| Bayern | 8.6 | 11.0 | 8.3 | 9.2 |
| Berlin | 13.3 | 9.4 | 7.5 | 7.6 |
| Brandenburg | 4.1 | 7.7 | 4.1 | 4.5 |
| Bremen | 19.5 | 16.6 | 11.0 | 14.1 |
| Hamburg | 9.4 | 9.2 | 7.4 | 8.5 |
| Hessen | 14.2 | 16.1 | 10.6 | 10.0 |
| Mecklenburg-Vorpommern | 6.8 | 6.6 | 5.2 | 6.5 |
| Niedersachsen | 13.2 | 13.0 | 10.4 | 11.3 |
| Nordrhein-Westfalen | 15.8 | 15.2 | 9.6 | 13.3 |
| Rheinland-Pfalz | 13.1 | 14.4 | 12.5 | 11.8 |
| Saarland | 12.9 | 14.3 | 10.1 | 11.1 |
| Sachsen | 6.1 | 7.9 | 4.8 | 6.1 |
| Sachsen-Anhalt | 3.3 | 4.8 | 4.5 | 4.3 |
| Schleswig-Holstein | 10.6 | 13.0 | 13.5 | 12.2 |
| Thüringen | 3.8 | 4.3 | 4.8 | 4.3 |
| Germany | 11.8 | 12.4 | 9.2 | 10.2 |
Average marginal effects for maternal labor outcome
| Variable | Participation | Full-time | Part-time | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Panel A: first year of motherhood | ||||||
| Policy | -0.058 (0.006) | -0.067 (0.049) | -0.022 (0.040) | -0.033 (0.043) | -0.041 (0.031) | -0.038 (0.037) |
| Employment before birth | 0.108*** (0.021) | 0.108*** (0.020) | 0.064* (0.025) | 0.066*** (0.025) | 0.047*** (0.005) | 0.047*** (0.018) |
| Policy*employment before birth | 0.042 (0.047) | 0.047 (0.052) | 0.026 (0.043) | 0.032 (0.046) | 0.021 (0.038) | 0.020 (0.041) |
| Childcare formal | 0.065 (0.155) | 0.113* (0.064) | -0.024 (0.123) | |||
| Rho | 0.513*** (0.046) | 0.378 (0.344) | 0.380*** (0.068) | -0.126 (0.288) | 0.348*** (0.083) | -0.432 (0.432) |
| Observations | 1,748 | 1,748 | 1,748 | 1,748 | 1,748 | 1,748 |
| Panel B: second year of motherhood | ||||||
| Policy | 0.199*** (0.062) | 0.080 (0.061) | 0.082*** (0.026) | 0.064** (0.027) | 0.086 (0.068) | 0.033 (0.059) |
| Employment before birth | 0.134*** (0.015) | 0.063** (0.032) | 0.077*** (0.029) | 0.069*** (0.025) | 0.070** (0.011) | 0.046 (0.007) |
| Policy*employment before birth | -0.041 (0.071) | -0.018 (0.055) | -0.070** (0.039) | -0.068* (0.039) | -0.0005 (0.075) | 0.007 (0.070) |
| Childcare formal | 0.409*** (0.045) | 0.111*** (0.105) | 0.258*** (0.069) | |||
| Rho | 0.589*** (0.055) | -0.526 (0.274) | 0.366*** (0.118) | -0.229 (0.440) | 0.403*** (0.041) | -0.239 (0.202) |
| Observations | 1,532 | 1,532 | 1,532 | 1,532 | 1,532 | 1,532 |
| Panel C: third year of motherhood | ||||||
| Policy | -0.038 (0.010) | -0.032 (0.067) | 0.004 (0.038) | -0.006 (0.044) | -0.025 (0.072) | -0.043 (0.056) |
| Employment before birth | 0.135*** (0.034) | 0.048** (0.029) | 0.026 (0.023) | 0.018 (0.027) | 0.110*** (0.026) | 0.040 (0.035) |
| Policy*employment before birth | 0.068 (0.102) | 0.068 (0.077) | -0.024 (0.041) | -0.024 (0.047) | 0.054 (0.060) | 0.039 (0.043) |
| Childcare formal | 0.447*** (0.027) | 0.101 (0.099) | 0.414*** (0.055) | |||
| Rho | 0.370*** (0.078) | -0.938* (0.124) | 0.446*** (0.122) | -0.223 (0.476) | 0.241*** (0.066) | -0.909** (0.118) |
| Observations | 933 | 933 | 933 | 933 | 933 | 933 |
| Controls | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Average marginal effects for maternal childcare decision: high-income category
| Decision | Participation | Full-time | Part-time | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Employment decision | Panel A: first year of motherhood | |||||
| Policy | -0.340*** | -0.330* | -0.802*** | -0.732*** | -0.191*** | -0.194*** |
| (0.067) | (0.183) | (0.138) | (0.101) | (0.042) | (0.045) | |
| Employment before | -0.017 | 0.028 | 0.041 | 0.055 | -0.14 | 0.012 |
| birth | (0.070) | (0.068) | (0.059) | (0.069) | (0.054) | (0.048) |
| Policy*employment | 0.280*** | 0.269 | 0.806*** | 0.716*** | 0.143 | 0.149*** |
| before birth | (0.070) | (0.180) | (0.142) | (0.106) | (0.045) | (0.049) |
| Childcare formal | 0.503*** | 0.123 | 0.262** | |||
| (0.191) | (0.279) | (0.134) | ||||
| Childcare decision | ||||||
| Childcare coverage | 0.210 | 0.283* | 0.195 | 0.191 | 0.154 | 0.196** |
| (0.161) | (0.152) | (0.136) | (0.152) | (0.146) | (0.082) | |
| Rho | 0.597*** | 0.615 | 0.496*** | 0.055 | 0.372** | -0.479 |
| (0.071) | (0.751) | (0.105) | (1.079) | (0.146) | (0.417) | |
| Observations | 839 | 839 | 839 | 839 | 839 | 839 |
| Employment decision | Panel B: second year of motherhood | |||||
| Policy | 0.501*** | 0.393** | 0.627*** | 0.030 | 0.258** | 0.194** |
| (0.139) | (0.197) | (0.216) | (0.076) | (0.112) | (0.096) | |
| Employment before | 0.327** | 0.339** | 0.614*** | 0.035 | 0.172 | 0.187* |
| birth | (0.142) | (0.157) | (0.215) | (0.078) | (0.114) | (0.108) |
| Policy*employment | -0.357*** | -0.322** | -0.649*** | -0.074 | -0.142 | -0.123 |
| before birth | (0.120) | (0.132) | (0.219) | (0.093) | (0.103) | (0.088) |
| Childcare formal | 0.379** | 0.222*** | 0.261 | |||
| (0.148) | (0.39) | (0.179) | ||||
| Childcare decision | ||||||
| Childcare coverage | 1.138*** | 1.447*** | 1.397*** | 1.457*** | 1.276*** | 1.420*** |
| (0.334) | (0.356) | (0.341) | (0.068) | (0.325) | (0.332) | |
| Rho | 0.697*** | -0.013 | 0.382** | -0.743 | 0.526** | 0.023 |
| (0.035) | (0.597) | (0.163) | (0.467) | (0.056) | (0.437) | |
| Observations | 735 | 735 | 735 | 735 | 735 | 735 |
Public childcare enrollment rates for children younger than three years, 2006–2015
| Region | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Baden-Württemberg | 8.7 | 11.5 | 13.6 | 15.8 | 18.3 | 20.8 | 23.1 | 24.9 | 27.8 | 27.8 |
| Bayern | 8.2 | 10.7 | 13.2 | 15.7 | 18.5 | 20.6 | 23.0 | 24.8 | 27.1 | 27.5 |
| Berlin | 37.8 | 39.8 | 40.4 | 41.5 | 42.1 | 41.9 | 42.6 | 43.7 | 46.0 | 45.9 |
| Brandenburg | 40.4 | 43.4 | 44.8 | 48.3 | 51.0 | 51.6 | 53.4 | 53.6 | 57.8 | 56.8 |
| Bremen | 9.2 | 10.5 | 12.7 | 13.7 | 16.1 | 19.6 | 21.2 | 23.2 | 26.9 | 27.1 |
| Hamburg | 21.0 | 22.0 | 20.1 | 22.2 | 28.5 | 32.4 | 35.8 | 38.4 | 43.0 | 43.3 |
| Hessen | 9.0 | 12.4 | 14.2 | 16.3 | 19.3 | 21.5 | 23.7 | 25.7 | 28.8 | 29.7 |
| Mecklenburg- Vorpommern | 43.1 | 44.1 | 44.9 | 49.5 | 50.7 | 51.7 | 53.6 | 54.5 | 56.1 | 56.0 |
| Niedersachsen | 5.1 | 6.9 | 9.1 | 11.9 | 15.8 | 18.6 | 22.1 | 24.4 | 27.9 | 28.3 |
| Nordrhein-Westfalen | 6.5 | 6.9 | 9.3 | 11.5 | 14.0 | 15.9 | 18.1 | 19.9 | 23.8 | 25.8 |
| Rheinland-Pfalz | 9.4 | 12.0 | 15.0 | 17.5 | 20.1 | 24.7 | 27.0 | 28.2 | 30.6 | 30.6 |
| Saarland | 10.2 | 12.1 | 14.1 | 15.1 | 17.7 | 20.2 | 22.1 | 24.6 | 27.0 | 28.3 |
| Sachsen | 33.5 | 34.6 | 36.5 | 40.1 | 42.8 | 44.1 | 46.4 | 47.2 | 49.9 | 50.6 |
| Sachsen-Anhalt | 50.2 | 51.8 | 52.7 | 55.1 | 55.9 | 56.1 | 57.5 | 57.7 | 58.3 | 57.9 |
| Schleswig-Holstein | 7.5 | 8.2 | 11.6 | 14.3 | 18.1 | 21.6 | 24.2 | 26.3 | 30.3 | 31.4 |
| Thüringen | 37.9 | 37.5 | 38.9 | 42.8 | 45.1 | 46.9 | 49.8 | 51.4 | 52.4 | 52.3 |
| Germany | 13.6 | 15.5 | 17.6 | 20.2 | 23.0 | 25.5 | 27.6 | 29.3 | 32.3 | 32.9 |
Average marginal effects for maternal childcare decision: low-income category
| Decision | Participation | Full-time | Part-time | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Employment decision | Panel A: first year of motherhood | |||||
| Policy | 0.016 | 0.025 | 0.006 | 0.003 | 0.005 | 0.010 |
| (0.035) | (0.048) | (0.022) | (0.024) | (0.032) | (0.043) | |
| Employment before | 0.098*** | 0.100*** | 0.040*** | 0.039*** | 0.044* | 0.041 |
| birth | (0.024) | (0.024) | (0.015) | (0.014) | (0.024) | (0.031) |
| Policy*employment | 0.001 | -0.003 | -0.002 | -0.0004 | 0.007 | 0.029 |
| before birth | (0.055) | (0.054) | (0.020) | (0.020) | (0.050) | (0.065) |
| Childcare formal | -0.082 | 0.032 | -0.195 | |||
| (0.207) | (0.068) | (0.370) | ||||
| Childcare decision | ||||||
| Childcare coverage | 0.324*** | 0.314*** | 0.303*** | 0.308*** | 0.326*** | 0.196** |
| (0.048) | (0.064) | (0.056) | (0.065) | (0.057) | (0.082) | |
| Rho | 0.482*** | 0.687 | 0.259* | 0.043 | 0.406** | 0.652 |
| (0.139) | (0.555) | (0.135) | (0.450) | (0.169) | (0.432) | |
| Observations | 909 | 909 | 909 | 909 | 909 | 909 |
| Employment decision | Panel B: second year of motherhood | |||||
| Policy | 0.079*** | 0.015 | 0.053*** | 0.038* | 0.008 | -0.017 |
| (0.072) | (0.064) | (0.026) | (0.023) | (0.060) | (0.060) | |
| Employment before | 0.042 | -0.017 | 0.041* | 0.024 | 0.011 | -0.009 |
| birth | (0.039) | (0.036) | (0.023) | (0.018) | (0.033) | (0.036) |
| Policy*employment | 0.054 | 0.062 | -0.008 | -0.006 | 0.010 | 0.013 |
| before birth | (0.092) | (0.080) | (0.032) | (0.035) | (0.077) | (0.103) |
| Childcare formal | 0.395*** | 0.180 | 0.182* | |||
| (0.062) | (0.124) | (0.103) | ||||
| Childcare decision | ||||||
| Childcare coverage | 0.672*** | 0.513** | 1.023*** | 0.865*** | 0.993*** | 0.985*** |
| (0.244) | (0.240) | (0.178) | (0.215) | (0.169) | (0.180) | |
| Rho | 0.436*** | -0.830 | 0.353** | -0.743 | 0.167** | -0.405 |
| (0.107) | (0.246) | (0.139) | (0.467) | (0.079) | (0.231) | |
| Observations | 797 | 797 | 797 | 797 | 797 | 797 |
Summary statistics: employment and childcare decision
| Variable | First year of motherhood | Second year of motherhood | Third year of motherhood | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Before 2007 | After 2007 | Mean test | Before 2007 | After 2007 | Mean test | Before 2007 | After 2007 | Mean test | |
| (1) | (2) | (2)-(l) | (3) | (4) | (4)-(3) | (5) | (6) | (6)-(5) | |
| 2006-2007 | Panel A | ||||||||
| Employment | 0.125 (0.332) | 0.198 (0.401) | 0.073 (0.052) | 0.329 (0.473) | 0.298 (0.462) | -0.031 (0.083) | 0.238 (0.431) | 0.147 (0.359) | -0.091 (0.092) |
| Employment full-time | 0.0650 (0.248) | 0.0833 (0.278) | 0.018 (0.035) | 0.0674 (0.252) | 0.0617 (0.242) | -0.006 (0.038) | 0.0556 (0.231) | 0.0444 (0.208) | -0.011 (0.045) |
| Employment part-time | 0.0488 (0.216) | 0.111 (0.316) | 0.062* (0.035) | 0.202 (0.404) | 0.160 (0.369) | -0.042 (0.060) | 0.130 (0.339) | 0.0667 (0.252) | -0.063 (0.061) |
| Formal childcare | 0.0407 (0.198) | 0.130 (0.337) | 0.089** (0.036) | 0.292 (0.457) | 0.247 (0.434) | -0.045 (0.069) | 0.500 (0.505) | 0.422 (0.499) | -0.078 (0.101) |
| Public childcare | 0.0407 (0.198) | 0.0741 (0.263) | 0.033 (0.030) | 0.225 (0.420) | 0.173 (0.380) | -0.052 (0.062) | 0.444 (0.502) | 0.422 (0.499) | -0.022 (0.101) |
| Home childcare | 0.691 (0.464) | 0.759 (0.430) | 0.068 (0.059) | 0.270 (0.446) | 0.519 (0.503) | 0.249*** (0.073) | 0.852 (0.359) | 0.844 (0.367) | -0.007 (0.073) |
| Nanny childcare | 0.0163 (0.127) | 0.0648 (0.247) | 0.049* (0.025) | 0.0674 (0.252) | 0.0988 (0.300) | 0.031 (0.042) | 0.426 (0.499) | 0.356 (0.484) | -0.070 (0.099) |
| Sample size | 231 | 170 | 99 | ||||||
| 2005-2008 | Panel B | ||||||||
| Employment | 0.161 (0.368) | 0.150 (0.358) | -0.010 (0.036) | 0.251 (0.435) | 0.345 (0.477) | 0.094* (0.048) | 0.225 (0.420) | 0.146 (0.354) - | 0.080* (0.048) |
| Employment full-time | 0.0674 (0.251) | 0.0588 (0.236) | -0.009 (0.023) | 0.0429 (0.203) | 0.0754 (0.264) | 0.033 (0.022) | 0.0455 (0.209) | 0.0246 (0.155) | -0.021 (0.020) |
| Employment part-time | 0.0816 (0.274) | 0.0784 (0.270) | -0.003 (0.025) | 0.162 (0.369) | 0.167 (0.374) | 0.005 (0.033) | 0.129 (0.336) | 0.0936 (0.292) | -0.035 (0.035) |
| Formal childcare | 0.0461 (0.210) | 0.123 (0.329) | 0.076*** (0.024) | 0.271 (0.446) | 0.403 (0.491) | 0.132*** (0.042) | 0.439 (0.498) | 0.463 (0.500) | 0.024 (0.056) |
| Public childcare | 0.0319 (0.176) | 0.0637 (0.245) | 0.032* (0.019) | 0.214 (0.411) | 0.321 (0.468) | 0.107*** (0.040) | 0.402 (0.492) | 0.438 (0.497) | 0.037 (0.055) |
| Home childcare | 0.709 (0.455) | 0.730 (0.445) | 0.021 (0.041) | 0.295 (0.457) | 0.626 (0.485) | 0.331*** (0.042) | 0.833 (0.374) | 0.842 (0.365) | 0.009 (0.041) |
| Nanny childcare | 0.0248 (0.156) | 0.0686 (0.253) | 0.044** (0.019) | 0.0619 (0.242) | 0.275 (0.447) | 0.214*** (0.034) | 0.348 (0.478) | 0.433 (0.497) | 0.085 (0.055) |
| Sample size | 486 | 515 | 335 | ||||||
| 2002-2011 | Panel C | ||||||||
| Employment | 0.168 (0.374) | 0.139 (0.346) | -0.029 (0.019) | 0.207 (0.405) | 0.371 (0.484) | 0.164*** (0.026) | 0.218 (0.413) | 0.196 (0.398) | -0.021 (0.030) |
| Employment full-time | 0.0624 (0.242) | 0.0531 (0.224) | -0.009 (0.011) | 0.0519 (0.222) | 0.0886 (0.284) | 0.037*** (0.013) | 0.0437 (0.205) | 0.0331 (0.179) | -0.011 (0.013) |
| Employment part-time | 0.0930 (0.291) | 0.0681 (0.252) | -0.025* (0.013) | 0.132 (0.339) | 0.182 (0.386) | 0.050*** (0.019) | 0.140 (0.347) | 0.121 (0.327) | -0.018 (0.022) |
| Formal childcare | 0.0635 (0.244) | 0.103 (0.304) | 0.039*** | 0.228 (0.420) | 0.393 (0.489) | 0.164*** (0.024) | 0.448 (0.498) | 0.472 (0.500) | 0.024 (0.033) |
| (0.013) | |||||||||
| Public childcare | 0.0442 (0.206) | 0.0716 (0.258) | 0.027** (0.011) | 0.188 (0.391) | 0.312 (0.464) | 0.124*** (0.022) | 0.417 (0.494) | 0.439 (0.497) | 0.023 (0.032) |
| Home childcare | 0.786 (0.411) | 0.756 (0.430) | -0.029 (0.020) | 0.355 (0.479) | 0.599 (0.490) | 0.244*** (0.025) | 0.854 (0.353) | 0.850 (0.358) | -0.004 (0.023) |
| Nanny childcare | 0.0510 (0.220) | 0.0647 (0.246) | 0.014 (0.011) | 0.0534 (0.225) | 0.245 (0.430) | 0.191*** (0.018) | 0.369 (0.483) | 0.437 (0.497) | 0.068** (0.032) |
| Sample size | 1,748 | 1,532 | |||||||
Summary statistics
| Observational | 2006-2007 | 2005-2008 | 2002-2011 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| period | Before 2007 | After 2007 | Mean test | Before 2007 | After 2007 | Mean test | Before 2007 | After 2007 | Mean test |
| Personal characteristics | (1) | (2) | (2)-(1) | (3) | (4) | (4)-(3) | (5) | (6) | (6)-(5) |
| Age | 30.34 (4.919) | 31.27 (5.109) | 0.932 (0.674) | 30.91 (5.090) | 31.27 (5.173) | 0.352 (0.398) | 30.93 (5.060) | 31.43 (5.174) | 0.503* (0.288) |
| Education | 12.64 (2.563) | 13.11 (2.256) | 0.462 (0.329) | 12.79 (2.646) | 13.28 (2.711) | 0.493*** (0.181) | 12.81 (2.700) | 13.27 (2.717) | 0.456*** (0.132) |
| Married | 0.715 (0.453) | 0.593 (0.494) | -0.123** (0.062) | 0.687 (0.464) | 0.658 (0.475) | -0.029 (0.031) | 0.722 (0.448) | 0.648 (0.478) | -0.074*** (0.022) |
| Cohabiting | 0.228 (0.421) | 0.278 (0.450) | 0.050 (0.057) | 0.248 (0.433) | 0.247 (0.432) | -0.002 (0.029) | 0.213 (0.410) | 0.252 (0.434) | 0.039* (0.020) |
| Child gender | 0.504 (0.502) | 0.491 (0.502) | -0.013 (0.066) | 0.481 (0.500) | 0.524 (0.500) | 0.043 (0.033) | 0.497 (0.500) | 0.509 (0.500) | 0.013 (0.024) |
| First child | 0.797 (0.404) | 0.722 (0.450) | -0.075 (0.056) | 0.674 (0.469) | 0.831 (0.375) | 0.157*** (0.028) | 0.583 (0.493) | 0.844 (0.363) | 0.261*** (0.021) |
| Labor characteristics before birth | |||||||||
| Employment | 0.776 (0.419) | 0.750 (0.435) | -0.026 (0.057) | 0.734 (0.442) | 0.787 (0.410) | 0.053 (0.034) | 0.674 (0.469) | 0.711 (0.454) | 0.038 (0.027) |
| Employment | 0.190 (0.394) | 0.148 (0.357) | -0.042 (0.050) | 0.191 (0.394) | 0.144 (0.352) | -0.047 (0.030) | 0.180 (0.384) | 0.119 (0.324) | -0.061*** (0.021) |
| part-time | |||||||||
| Employment | 0.526 (0.501) | 0.463 (0.501) | -0.063 (0.067) | 0.474 (0.500) | 0.555 (0.498) | 0.081** (0.039) | 0.420 (0.494) | 0.511 (0.500) | 0.091*** (0.029) |
| full-time | |||||||||
| Labor income | 18,667.4 | 19,154.3 | 486.862 (2,252.418) | 18,928.5 | 21,143.3 | 2,214.814* | 17,619.3 | 21,148.2 | 3,528.880*** |
| (15,390.2) | (18,279.5) | (16,312.5) | (16,526.4) | (1,290.415) | (16,733.1) | (16,066.2) | (964.485) | ||
| Household labor | 48,008.4 | 47,542.4 - | 466.088 (4,448.715) | 53,433.7 | 49,731.1 | -3,702.662 | 51,668.8 | 50,556.0 | -1,112.802 |
| income | (31,253.0) | (35,309.4) | (35,113.0) | (33,150.1) | (2,705.036) | (34,682.5) | (33,508.7) | (2,003.282) | |
| Partner characteristics | |||||||||
| Age | 33.94 (6.496) | 34.45 (5.950) | 0.510 (0.932) | 34.13 (5.836) | 34.75 (5.808) | 0.615 (0.502) | 33.96 (5.750) | 34.48 (5.853) | 0.519 (0.366) |
| Education | 12.55 (2.683) | 13.04 (2.661) | 0.485 (0.398) | 12.77 (2.860) | 13.03 (2.826) | 0.264 (0.211) | 12.82 (2.956) | 13.00 (2.849) | 0.185 (0.157) |
| Other characteristics | |||||||||
| Parental leave | 421.7 (381.5) | 712.6 (518.5) | 290.913*** (76.575) | 402.3 (397.3) | 741.3 (486.5) | 338.955*** | 391.7 (290.4) | 768.2 (466.0) | 376.446*** |
| benefits per | (52.111) | (24.073) | |||||||
| month | |||||||||
| Parental leave | 2,823.1 | 4,984.3 | 2,161.185*** | 3,164.1 | 4,978.9 | 1,814.857*** | 3,293.8 | 4,899.0 | 1,605.207*** |
| benefits per year | (1,629.5) | (4,393.4) | (491.531) | (2,593.8) | (4,161.6) | (360.541) | (2,661.2) | (3,792.3) | (186.716) |
| Childcare | 0.178 (0.143) | 0.222 (0.145) | 0.044** (0.019) | 0.171 (0.146) | 0.237 (0.137) | 0.065*** (0.009) | 0.162 (0.144) | 0.250 (0.134) | 0.087*** (0.007) |
| coverage | |||||||||
| Sample size | 486 | 913 | 1,748 | ||||||