Spinal Cord Injuries in Dogs Part II: Standards of Care, Prognosis and New Perspectives

1. Adams, M. M., Hicks, A. L., 2005: Spasticity after spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord, 43, 577—586.10.1038/sj.sc.310175715838527Search in Google Scholar

2. Akhtar, A. Z., Pippin, J. J., Sandusky, C. B., 2008: Animal models in spinal cord injury: a review. Rev. Neurosci., 19, 47—60.10.1515/REVNEURO.2008.19.1.47Search in Google Scholar

3. Badner, A., Vawda, R., Laliberte, A., Hong, J., Mikhail, M., Jose, A., et al., 2016: Early intravenous delivery of human brain stromal cells modulates systemic inflammation and leads to vasoprotection in traumatic spinal cord injury. Stem Cells Transl. Med., 5, 991—1003.10.5966/sctm.2015-0295495445227245367Search in Google Scholar

4. Bockurt, G., Mothe, A. J., Zahir, T., Kim, H., Shoichet, M. L., Tator, C. H., 2010: Chitosan channels containing spinal cord-derived stem/progenitor cells for repair of subacute spinal cord injury in the rat. Neurosurgery, 67, 1733—1744.10.1227/NEU.0b013e3181f9af3521107205Search in Google Scholar

5. Borrie, S. C., Baeumer, B. E., Badtlow, C. E., 2012: The nogo-66 receptor family in the intact and diseased CNS. Cell Tissue Res., 349, 105—117.10.1007/s00441-012-1332-922311207Search in Google Scholar

6. Bracken, M. B., 2012: Steroids for acute spinal cord injury. Review. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 1, Art. No.: CD001046.10.1002/14651858.CD001046.pub2651340522258943Search in Google Scholar

7. Brisson, B. A., 2010: Intervertebral disc disease in dogs. Vet. Clin. North Am. Small Anim. Pract., 40, 829—858.10.1016/j.cvsm.2010.06.00120732594Search in Google Scholar

8. Brock, J., Rosenzweig, W. E., Blesch, A., Moseanko, R., Havton, L., Edgerton, V., et al., 2012: Local and remote growth factor effects after primate spinal cord injury. J. Neurosci., 30, 9728—9737.10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1924-10.2010292709820660255Search in Google Scholar

9. Bruce, C. W., Brisson, B. A., Gyselinck, K., 2008: Spinal fracture and luxation in dogs and cats: a retrospective evaluation of 95 cases. Vet. Comp. Orthop. Traumatol., 21, 280—284.10.1055/s-0037-1618862Search in Google Scholar

10. Cauzimille, L., Kornegay, J. N., 1996: Fibrocartilaginous embolism of the spinal cord in dogs: Review of 36 histologically confirmed cases and retrospective study of 26 suspected cases. J. Vet. Intern. Med., 10, 241—245.10.1111/j.1939-1676.1996.tb02056.x8819049Search in Google Scholar

11. Devaux, S., Cizkova, D., Quamico, J., Franck, J., Nataf, S., Pays, L., et al., 2016: Proteomic analysis of the spatio-temporal based molecular kinetics of acute spinal cord injury identifies a time- and segment-specific window for effective tissue repair. Moll. Cell. Proteomics, 15, 2641—2670.10.1074/mcp.M115.057794497434227250205Search in Google Scholar

12. Dewey, C. W., 2008:A Practical Guide to Canine and Feline Neurology. 2nd edn., Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, 706 pp.Search in Google Scholar

13. Dumont, R. J., Okonkwo, D. O., Verma, S., Hurlbert, R. J., Boulos, P. T., Ellegala, D. B., et al., 2001: Acute spinal cord injury, Part I: Pathophysiologic mechanisms. Clin. Neuropharm., 24, 254—264.10.1097/00002826-200109000-0000211586110Search in Google Scholar

14. Eminaga, S., Palus, V., Cherubini, G. B., 2011: Acute spinal cord injury in the cats: causes, treatment and prognosis. J. Feline Med. Surg., 13, 850—862.10.1016/j.jfms.2011.09.00622063209Search in Google Scholar

15. Filbin, M. T., 2003: Myelin-associated inhibitors of axonal regeneration in the adult mammalian CNS. Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 4, 703—713.10.1038/nrn119512951563Search in Google Scholar

16. Fletcher, T. F., 2013: Spinal cord and meninges. In Evans, H. P., de Lahunta, A., (Eds.):Miller’s Anatomy of the Dog. 4th edn., Elsevier, Saunders, St. Louis, USA, 589—610.Search in Google Scholar

17. Fouad, K., Ghosh, M., Vavrek, R., Tse, A. D., Pearse, D. D., 2009: Dose and chemical modification considerations for continuous cyclic AMP analog delivery to the injured CNS. J. Neurotrauma, 26, 733—740.10.1089/neu.2008.0730284882919397425Search in Google Scholar

18. Fraga, J. S., Silva, N. A., Lourenco, A. S., Gincalves, V., Neves, N. M., Reis, R. L., et al., 2013: Unveiling the effects of the secretome of mesenchymal progenitors from the umbilical cord in different neuronal cell populations. Biochimie, 95, 2297—2303.10.1016/j.biochi.2013.06.02823851197Search in Google Scholar

19. Frood, R. T., 2011: The use of treadmill training to recover locomotor ability in patients with spinal cord injury. Biosci. Hor., 4, 108—117.10.1093/biohorizons/hzr003Search in Google Scholar

20. Galandiuk, S., Raque, C., Appel, S., Polk, jr., H. C., 1993: The two-edged sword of large-dose steroids for spinal cord trauma. Ann. Surg., 218, 419—427.10.1097/00000658-199310000-0000312429938215634Search in Google Scholar

21. Gandini, G., Cizinauskas, S., Lang, J., Fatzer, R., Jaggy, A., 2003: Fibrocartilaginous embolism in 75 dogs: clinical findings and factors influencing the recovery rate. J. Small Anim. Pract., 44, 76—80.10.1111/j.1748-5827.2003.tb00124.x12622472Search in Google Scholar

22. Gedrova, S., Galik, J., Marsala, M., Zavodska, M., Pavel, J., Sulla, I., 2018: Neuroprotective effect of local hypothermia in a computer-controlled compression model in minipig: correlation of tissue sparing along the rostro-caudal axis with neurological outcome. Exp. Therap. Med., 15, 254—270.10.3892/etm.2017.5432576922329399061Search in Google Scholar

23. Grulova, I., Slovinska, L., Nagyova, M., Cizek, M., Cizkova, D., 2013: The effect of hypothermia on sensory-motor function and tissue sparing after spinal cord injury. Spine J., 13, 1881—1891.10.1016/j.spinee.2013.06.07324012427Search in Google Scholar

24. Haisma, J. A., van der Woude, L. H., Stam, H. J., Bergen, M. P., Sluis, T. A., Post, M. W., et al., 2007: Complications following spinal cord injury: occurrence and risk factors in a longitudinal study during and after in patient’s rehabilitation. J. Rehab. Med., 39, 393—398.10.2340/16501977-006717549331Search in Google Scholar

25. Hanseobout, R. R., Hansebout, C. R., 2014: Local cooling for traumatic spinal cord injury: outcomes in 20 patients and review of literature. J. Neurosurg. Spine, 20, 550—561.10.3171/2014.2.SPINE1331824628130Search in Google Scholar

26. Harkema, S. J., Schmidt-Read, M., Lorenz, D. J., Edgerton, V. R., Behrman, A. L., 2012: Balance and ambulation improvements in individuals with chronic incomplete spinal cord injury using locomotor training-based rehabilitation. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabilit., 93, 1508—1511.10.1016/j.apmr.2011.01.02421777905Search in Google Scholar

27. Henke, D., Vandevelde, M., Doher, M. G., Stockli, M., Forterre, F., 2013: Correlations between severity of clinical signs and histopathological changes in 60 dogs with spinal cord injury associated with acute thoracolumbar intervertebral disc disease. Vet. J., 198, 70—75.10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.04.00323702280Search in Google Scholar

28. Hess, C. W., 2005: Nicht-traumatische akute Querschnittsyndrome. Praxis (Basel), 94, 1151—1159.10.1024/0369-8394.94.30.115116117470Search in Google Scholar

29. Hulbert, R. J., Hadley, M. N., Walters, B. C., Aarabi, B., Dhall, S. S., Gelb, D. E., et al., 2013: Pharmacological therapy for acute spinal cord injury. Neurosurgery, 72, 93—105.10.1227/NEU.0b013e31827765c623417182Search in Google Scholar

30. Ilkiv, J. E., Turner, D. M., Howlett, C. R., 1987: Infestations in the dog by the paralysis tick Ixodes holocyclus. 1. Clinical and histological findings. Aust. Vet. J., 64, 137—139.10.1111/j.1751-0813.1987.tb09662.x3632489Search in Google Scholar

31. Jeffery, N. D., Hamilton, L., Granger, N., 2011: Designing clinical trials in canine spinal cord injury as a model to translate successful laboratory interventions into clinical practice. Vet. Rec., 168, 102—107.10.1136/vr.d47521493470Search in Google Scholar

32. Jeong, S. Y., Seol, D. W., Li, F. C., Chen, Q. X., 2008: The role of mitochondria in apoptosis. BMB Reports, 41, 11—22.10.5483/BMBRep.2008.41.1.01118304445Search in Google Scholar

33. Kabu, S., Gao, Y., Kwon, B. K., 2015: Drug delivery, cell based therapies, and tissue engineering approaches for spinal cord injury. J. Control. Rel., 219, 141—154.10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.08.060465608526343846Search in Google Scholar

34. Kakulas, B. A., 2004: Neuropathology: the foundation for new treatments in spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord, 42, 549—563.10.1038/sj.sc.310167015346131Search in Google Scholar

35. Kim, Y. T., Caldwell, J. M., Bellamkonda, R. V., 2009: Nanoparticle-mediated local delivery of methylprednisolone after spinal cord injury. Biomaterials, 30, 2582—2590.10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.12.077267868519185913Search in Google Scholar

36. Kruger, E. A., Pires, M., Ngann, Y., Sterling, M., Rubay, S., 2013: Comprehensive management of pressure ulcers in spinal cord injury: current concepts and future trends. J. Spin. Cord Med., 36, 572—585.10.1179/2045772313Y.0000000093383131824090179Search in Google Scholar

37. Kwon, B. K., Okon, E., Hillyer, J., Mann, C., Baptiste, D., Weaver, L. C., et al., 2011: A systematic review of non-invasive pharmacologic neuroprotective treatments for acute spinal cord injury. J. Neurotrauma, 28, 1545—1588.10.1089/neu.2009.1149314341020146558Search in Google Scholar

38. Lee, J. Y., Kim, H. S., Choi, S. Y., Oh, T. H., Ju, B. G., Yune, T. Y., 2012: Valproic acid attenuates blood-spinal cord barrier disruption by inhibiting matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity and improves functional recovery after spinal cord injury. J. Neurochem., 121, 818—829.10.1111/j.1471-4159.2012.07731.x22409448Search in Google Scholar

39. Lee, J. Y., Choi, S. Y., Oh, T. H., Yune, T. Y., 2012: 17β-estradiol inhibits apoptotic cell death of oligodendrocytes by inhibiting Rhoa-JNK3 activation after spinal cord injury. Endocrinology, 153, 3815—3827.10.1210/en.2012-106822700771Search in Google Scholar

40. Levine, G. J., Levine, J. M., Budke, C. M., Kerwin, S. C., Au, J., Vinayak, A., et al., 2009: Description and repeatability of a newly developed spinal cord injury scale for dogs. Prev. Vet. Med., 89, 121—127.10.1016/j.prevetmed.2009.02.01619303151Search in Google Scholar

41. Lin, M. S., Lee, Y. H., Chiu, W. T., Hung, K. S., 2011: Curcumin provides neuroprotection after spinal cord injury. J. Surg. Res., 166, 280—289.10.1016/j.jss.2009.07.00120018302Search in Google Scholar

42. Liu, W. M., Wu, J. Y., Li, F. C., Vhen, Q. X., 2011: Ion channel blockers and spinal cord injury. J. Neurosci. Res., 89, 791—801.10.1002/jnr.2260221394757Search in Google Scholar

43. Lo, T. P., Cho, K. S., Garg, M. S., Lynch, M. P., Marcillo, A. E., Koivisto, D. L., et al., 2009: Systemic hypothermia improves histological and functional outcome after cervical spinal cord contusion in rats. J. Comp. Neurol., 514, 433—448.10.1002/cne.2201419350644Search in Google Scholar

44. Low, K., Culbertson, M., Bradke, F., Tessier-Lavigne, M., Tuszynski, M. H., 2008: Netrin-1 is a novel myelin-associated inhibitor to axon growth. J. Neurosci., 28, 1099—1108.10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4906-07.2008667139418234888Search in Google Scholar

45. Mack, E. H., 2013: Neurogenic shock. Open Ped. Med. J., 7 (Suppl. 1: M4), 16—18.10.2174/1874309901307010016Search in Google Scholar

46. McKee, W. M., Downes, C. J., Pink, J. J., Gemmill, T. J., 2010: Presumptive exercise-associated peracute thoracolumbar disc extrusion in 48 dogs. Vet. Rec., 166, 523—528.10.1136/vr.b482320418513Search in Google Scholar

47. McKinley, W., Santos, K., Meade, M., Brooke, K., 2007: Incidence and outcomes of spinal cord injury clinical syndromes. J. Spinal Cord Med., 30, 215—224.10.1080/10790268.2007.11753929203195217684887Search in Google Scholar

48. McMurray, G., Casey, J. H., Naylor, A. M., 2006: Animal models in urologic disease and sexual dysfunction. Br. J. Pharm., 147, S52—S79.10.1038/sj.bjp.0706630175149616465185Search in Google Scholar

49. Nakamoto, Y., Ozawa, T., Katanabe, K., Nishiya, K., Yasuda, N., Mashita, T., et al., 2009: Fibrocartilaginous embolism of the spinal cord diagnosed by characteristic clinical findings and magnetic resonance imaging in 26 dogs. J. Vet. Med. Sci., 71, 171—176.10.1292/jvms.71.17119262027Search in Google Scholar

50. Nakano, R., Edamura, K., Sugiya, H., Narita, T., Okabayashi, K., Moritomo, T., et al., 2013: Evaluation of mRNA expression levels and electrophysiological function of neuronlike cells derived from canine bone marrow stromal cells. Am. J. Vet. Res., 74, 1311—1320.10.2460/ajvr.74.10.131124066915Search in Google Scholar

51. Nishida, H., Nakayama, M., Tanaka, H., Kitamura, M., Hatoya, S., Sugiura, K., et al., 2011: Evaluation of transplantation of autologous bone marrow stromal cells into the cerebrospinal fluid for treatment of chronic spinal cord injury in dogs. Am. J. Vet. Res., 72, 1118—1123.10.2460/ajvr.72.8.111821801071Search in Google Scholar

52. Noble, L. J., Donovan, F., Igarashi, T., Goussev, S., Werb, Z., 2002: Matrix metalloproteinases limit functional recovery after spinal cord injury by modulation of early vascular events. J. Neurosci., 22, 7526—7535.10.1523/JNEUROSCI.22-17-07526.2002Search in Google Scholar

53. Olby, N., 2010: The pathogenesis and treatment of acute spinal cord injuries in dogs. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Small Anim. Pract., 40, 791—807.10.1016/j.cvsm.2010.05.00720732592Search in Google Scholar

54. Ormond, D. R., Peng, H., Zeman, R., Das, K., Murali, R., Jhanwar-Uniyal, M., 2012: Recovery from spinal cord injury using naturally occurring anti-inflammatory compound curcumin: laboratory investigation. J. Neurosurg. Spine, 16, 497—503.10.3171/2012.1.SPINE1176922324804Search in Google Scholar

55. Penning, V., Platt, S. R., Dennis, R., Capello, R., Adams, V., 2006: Association of spinal cord compression seen on magnetic resonance imaging with clinical outcome in 67 dogs with thoracolumbar intervertebral disc extrusion. J. Small Anim. Pract., 47, 644—655.10.1111/j.1748-5827.2006.00252.x17076787Search in Google Scholar

56. Quian, T., Guo, X., Levi, A. D., Vanni, S., Shebert, R. T., Sipski, M. L., 2005: High-dose methylprednisolone may cause myopathy in acute spinal cord injury patients. Spinal Cord, 43, 199—203.10.1038/sj.sc.310168115534623Search in Google Scholar

57. Risio, L. D., Platt, S. R., 2010: Fibrocartilaginous embolic myelopathy in small animals. Vet. Clin. North Am. Small Anim. Pract., 40, 859—869.10.1016/j.cvsm.2010.05.00320732595Search in Google Scholar

58. Rowland, J. W., Hawryluk, G. W. J., Kwon, B., Fehlings, M. G., 2008: Current status of acute spinal cord injury pathophysiology and emerging therapies: promise on the horizon. Neurosurg. Focus, 25, E2.10.3171/FOC.2008.25.11.E218980476Search in Google Scholar

59. Saganova, K., Orendacova, J., Cizkova, D., Vanicky, I., 2008: Limited minocycline neuroprotection after balloon-compression spinal cord injury in the rat. Neurosci. Letters, 433, 246—249.10.1016/j.neulet.2008.01.04118280653Search in Google Scholar

60. Samantaray, S., Das, A., Thakore, N. P., Matzelle, D. D., Reiter, R. J., Ray, L. K., et al., 2009: Therapeutic potencial of melatonin in traumatic central nervous system injury. J. Pineal Res., 47, 134—142.10.1111/j.1600-079X.2009.00703.x19627458Search in Google Scholar

61. Sarmento, C. A. P., Rodrigues, M. N., Bocabello, R. Z., Mess, A. M., Miglino, M. A., 2014: Pilot study: bone marrow stem cells as a treatment for dogs with chronic spinal cord injury. Reg. Med. Res., 2, 9.10.1186/2050-490X-2-9442247525984337Search in Google Scholar

62. Silva, N. A., Sousa, N., Reis, R. L., Salgado, A. J., 2014: From basics to clinical: a comprehensive review on spinal cord injury. Progr. Neurobiol., 114, 25—57.10.1016/j.pneurobio.2013.11.00224269804Search in Google Scholar

63. Srugo, I., Aroch, I., Christopher, M. M., Chai, O., Goralnik, I., Bdolah-Abram, I., et al., 2011: Signs and outcome in acute nonambulatory thoracolumbar disc disease in dogs. J. Vet. Intern., Med., 25, 846—855.10.1111/j.1939-1676.2011.0739.xSearch in Google Scholar

64. Steward, O., Popovich, P. G., Dietrich, W. D., Kleitman, N., 2012: Replication and reproducibility in spinal cord injury research. Exp. Neurol., 233, 597—605.10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.06.017Search in Google Scholar

65. Šulla, I., Balik, V., Petrovičová, J., Almášiová, V., Holovská, K, Oroszová, Z., 2016: A rat spinal cord injury experimental model. Folia Veterinaria, 60, 41—46.10.1515/fv-2016-0017Search in Google Scholar

66. Tsao, T. Y., Chen, E. L., Tsai, W. C., 2009: Steroids for acute spinal cord injury: revealing silent pathology. Lancet, 374 (9688), 500.10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60939-9Search in Google Scholar

67. Waters, R. L., Adkins, R. H., Yakura, J. S., 1991: Definition of complete spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord, 29, 573—581.10.1038/sc.1991.85Search in Google Scholar

68. Webb, A. A., Ngan, S., Fowler, D. J., 2010: Spinal cord injury I: a synopsis of the basic science. Can. Vet. J., 51, 485—492.Search in Google Scholar

69. Webb, A. A., Ngan, S., Fowler, D. J., 2010: Spinal cord injury II: prognostic indicators, standards of care, and clinical trials. Can. Vet. J., 51, 598—604.Search in Google Scholar

70. Wewetzer, K., Radtke, C., Kocsis, J., Baumgärtner, W., 2011: Species-specific control of cellular proliferation and the impact of large animal models for the use of olfactory ensheathing cells and Schwann cells in spinal cord repair. Exp. Neurol., 229, 80—87.10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.08.029Search in Google Scholar

71. Wilson, J. R., Foergione, N., Fehlings, M. G., 2013: Emerging therapies for acute traumatic spinal cord injury. Canad. Med. Assoc. J., 71, 281—299.Search in Google Scholar

72. Wu, K. L. H., Hsu, C., Chan, J. Y. J., 2009: Nitric oxide and superoxide anion differentially activate poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 and Bax to induce nuclear translocation of apoptosis inducing factor and mitochondrial release of cytochrome C after spinal cord injury. J. Neurotrauma, 26, 965—977.10.1089/neu.2008.0692Search in Google Scholar

73. Xu, J., Fan, G., Chen, S., Wu, Y., Xu, M., Hsu, C. Y., 1998: Methylprednisolone inhibition of TNF-alpha expression and NF-KB activation after spinal cord injury in rats. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res., 59, 135—142.10.1016/S0169-328X(98)00142-9Search in Google Scholar

74. Ying, Z., Roy, R. R., Edgerton, V. R., Gómez-Pinilla, F., 2005: Exercise restores levels of neurotrophins and synaptic plasticity following spinal cord injury. Exp. Neurol., 193, 411—419.10.1016/j.expneurol.2005.01.01515869943Search in Google Scholar

75. Zaki, F. A., Prata, R. G., 1976: Necrotizing myelopathy secondary to embolization of herniated intervertebral disk material in the dog. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., 169, 222—228.Search in Google Scholar

76. Zhou, X., He, X., Ren, Y., 2014: Function of microglia and macrophages in secondary damage after spinal cord injury. Neural Reg. Res., 9, 1787—1795.10.4103/1673-5374.143423423976825422640Search in Google Scholar

77. Zhu, H., Feng, Y. P., Wise, Y., Yon, S. W., Shen, X. F., Liu, Y. S., et al., 2008: Early neurosurgical intervention of spinal cord contusion: an analysis of 30 cases. Chin. Med. J., 121, 2473—2478.10.1097/00029330-200812020-00002Search in Google Scholar