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Empowerment Rights and Happiness Gap in Post-socialist Countries

Anna Lewczuk
Anna Lewczuk
   | Oct 26, 2019
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Published Online: Oct 26, 2019
Page range: 270 - 295
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/ceej-2018-0023
Keywords
© 2018 A. Lewczuk, published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.

Fig. 1

Features determining a person’s well-being. Own work on the basis of: Helliwell, John, Richard Layard, and Jeffrey Sachs. ‘World happiness report’ (2012).
Features determining a person’s well-being. Own work on the basis of: Helliwell, John, Richard Layard, and Jeffrey Sachs. ‘World happiness report’ (2012).

Fig. 2

Dimensions of social capital. Own work on the basis of Kaasa, Anneli and Eve Parts. ‘Individual-level determinants of social capital in Europe: Differences between country groups.’ Acta sociologica 51.2 (2008).
Dimensions of social capital. Own work on the basis of Kaasa, Anneli and Eve Parts. ‘Individual-level determinants of social capital in Europe: Differences between country groups.’ Acta sociologica 51.2 (2008).

Fig. 3

The impact of the empowerment rights on the level of life satisfaction in post-socialist countries.
The impact of the empowerment rights on the level of life satisfaction in post-socialist countries.

The influence of empowerment rights gap on the level of happiness gap between post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries (ordered probit model)

(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)
transition-0.795**-0.728**-0.785**-0.758**-0.748**
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)
civil society_gap-0.156**
(0.01)
religion_gap-0.031**
(0.01)
expression_gap-0.083**
(0.01)
move_gap-0.043**
(0.00)
age-0.037**-0.037**-0.037**-0.037**-0.037**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
age20.000**0.000**0.000**0.000**0.000**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
female0.043**0.045**0.044**0.044**0.044**
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)
divorced-0.342**-0.364**-0.359**-0.361**-0.361**
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)
single-0.233**-0.226**-0.224**-0.226**-0.227**
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)
widowed-0.364**-0.365**-0.365**-0.364**-0.364**
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)
children-0.013-0.006-0.005-0.005-0.004
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)
number of observations91057

The interdependence between de jure and de facto rights protection

Lack of de jure rights protectionDe jure rights protection exists
Lack of de facto rights protectionIII
De facto rights protection existsIIIIV

The influence of empowerment rights gap on the level of happiness gap between post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries (ordered probit model) - final result

(1)(2)(3)(4)
transition0.105 (0.04)-0.110 (0.05)0.041 (0.04)-1.947** (0.11)
civil society_gap-0.063* (0.02)
civil society_gap#transition-1.371** (0.13)
religion_gap0.042 (0.05)
religion_gap#transition0.728** (0.06)
expression_gap0.038 (0.03)
expression_gap#transition2.001** (0.16)
move_gap-0.011 (0.02)
move_gap#transition-1.030** (0.05)
age-0.033** (0.00)-0.032** (0.00)-0.033** (0.00)-0.031** (0.00)
age20.000** (0.00)0.000** (0.00)0.000** (0.00)0.000** (0.00)
female0.046** (0.01)0.038** (0.01)0.043** (0.01)0.046** (0.01)
divorced-0.289** (0.03)-0.315** (0.03)-0.319** (0.03)-0.291** (0.03)
single-0.204** (0.02)-0.208** (0.02)-0.164** (0.02)-0.229** (0.02)
widowed-0.180** (0.03)-0.186** (0.03)-0.195** (0.03)-0.180** (0.03)
children0.027 (0.02)0.025 (0.02)0.090** (0.02)-0.015 (0.02)
good state of health-0.383** (0.02)-0.371** (0.02)-0.384** (0.02)-0.391** (0.02)
fair state of health-0.763** (0.02)-0.737** (0.02)-0.755** (0.02)-0.774** (0.02)
poor state of health-1.220** (0.03)-1.176** (0.03)-1.218** (0.03)-1.226** (0.03)
very poor state of health-1.512**-1.462**-1.512**-1.502**
(0.09)(0.09)(0.09)(0.09)
religiosity0.169**0.164**0.137**0.175**
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)
tertiary education0.109**0.055*0.053*0.083**
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
secondary education0.073**0.038*0.0140.071**
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
income0.117**0.118**0.117**0.119**
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)
income2-0.005**-0.005**-0.005**-0.005**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
lngdppc-0.049-0.156**0.433**-0.419**
(0.04)(0.04)(0.04)(0.04)
Inflation-0.008**-0.010**0.000-0.012**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
unemployment-0.013**-0.028**0.008**0.002
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
GDP growth0.016**-0.0000.0020.017**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
leftist ideology of government-0.285**-0.048-0.224**-0.208**
(0.04)(0.04)(0.04)(0.03)
right ideology of government-0.349**-0.277**-0.348**-0.477**
(0.04)(0.04)(0.04)(0.04)
democracy0.0140.0210.073**0.182**
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
regulatory quality-0.232**-0.0030.251**-0.319**
(0.06)(0.07)(0.06)(0.06)
government effectiveness0.309**0.322**0.167**0.336**
(0.05)(0.05)(0.05) with time effects(0.05)
number of observations25095

The results of Kruskal-Wallis H test

Mean value of SWB of respondents living in a country where freedom is included in the constitutionMean value of SWB of respondents living in a country where freedom is not included in the constitutionχ2statisticsp-value
Freedom of assembly6.326.77158.7580.0001
Freedom of religion6.476.452.8120.0935
Freedom of expression6.296.79158.7580.0001
Freedom of movement6.156.92158.7580.0001

The influence of de facto empowerment rights on the size of the happiness gap (ordered probit model)

(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)
transition-0.300** (0.04)-0.290** (0.04)-0.273** (0.04)-0.164** (0.04)-0.236** (0.04)0.169** (0.05)
civil society_df1.320**1.346**
(0.11)(0.15)
religion_df-0.134**0.291**
(0.02)(0.03)
expression_df-2.638**-6.500**
(0.17)(0.30)
move_df0.326**0.327**
(0.02)(0.04)
Wave 40.279**0.221**0.382**0.338**0.316**0.213**
(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)
Wave 50.245**0.217**0.349**0.290**0.317**0.201**
(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)
Wave 6
age-0.042**-0.042**-0.042**-0.042**-0.040**-0.039**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
age20.000**0.000**0.000**0.000**0.000**0.000**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
female0.0240.0260.0220.0210.027*0.026*
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)
divorced-0.289**-0.294**-0.298**-0.314**-0.273**-0.318**
(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)
single-0.198**-0.194**-0.184**-0.185**-0.241**-0.243**
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
widowed-0.225**-0.223**-0.230**-0.235**-0.221**-0.233**
(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)
children0.052**0.070**0.075**0.079**-0.020-0.001
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
good state of health-0.392**-0.384**-0.394**-0.389**-0.401**-0.383**
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
fair state of health-0.769**-0.756**-0.766**-0.761**-0.778**-0.751**
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
poor state of health-1.231**-1.216**-1.232**-1.219**-1.237**-1.190**
(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)
very poor state of health-1.527**-1.510**-1.525**-1.513**-1.526**-1.477**
(0.09)(0.09)(0.09)(0.09)(0.09)(0.09)
religiosity0.159**0.150**0.153**0.137**0.172**0.119**
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)
tertiary education0.171**0.178**0.157**0.116**0.185**0.087**
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
secondary education0.107**0.117**0.096**0.051**0.148**0.059**
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
income0.159**0.148**0.154**0.163**0.159**0.167**
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)
income2-0.007**-0.006**-0.007**-0.008**-0.007**-0.008**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
lngdppc0.169**0.104**0.135**0.507**0.086*0.903**
(0.04)(0.04)(0.04)(0.04)(0.04)(0.06)
Inflation-0.007**-0.008**-0.003**0.004**-0.007**0.009**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
unemployment0.002-0.005**0.007**0.022**0.005**0.038**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
GDP growth0.014**0.019**0.019**0.013**0.015**0.007*
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
leftist ideology of government-0.335**-0.303**-0.394**-0.252**-0.252**0.134**
(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.04)
right ideology of government-0.490**-0.455**-0.605**-0.483**-0.483**-0.191**
(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.04)
democracy0.047*0.095**0.180**0.086**0.214**0.065
(0.02)(0.02)(0.03)(0.02)(0.03)(0.05)
regulatory quality0.231**-0.0420.318**0.519**0.133**0.335**
(0.03)(0.04)(0.04)(0.04)(0.03)(0.05)
number of observations29397

The influence of de jure and de facto empowerment rights on the size of the happiness gap (ordered probit model)

(1)(2)(3)(4)
transition-0.306**-0.302**-0.149**-0.321**
(0.04)(0.04)(0.04)(0.04)
civil society_df1.494**
(0.13)
assembly_di0.074**
(0.03)
religion_df-0.122**
(0.02)
religion_di0.445**
(0.03)
expression_df-2.714**
(0.17)
expression_di-0.109**
(0.03)
move_df0.321**
(0.02)
move_di-0.118**
(0.02)
Wave 40.182**0.217**0.327**0.342**
(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)
Wave 50.193**0.289**0.257**0.318**
(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)
Wave 6
age-0.042**-0.042**-0.041**-0.040**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
age20.000**0.000**0.000**0.000**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
female0.0260.0180.0220.029*
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)
divorced-0.294**-0.301**-0.314**-0.277**
(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)
single-0.191**-0.208**-0.190**-0.234**
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
widowed-0.223**-0.226**-0.235**-0.222**
(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)
children0.080**0.058**0.066**-0.010
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
good state of health-0.386**-0.393**-0.387**-0.400**
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
fair state of health-0.759**-0.760**-0.759**-0.776**
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
poor state of health-1.217**-1.209**-1.216**-1.235**
(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)
very poor state of health-1.510**-1.498**-1.511**-1.524**
(0.09)(0.09)(0.09)(0.09)
religiosity0.150**0.158**0.135**0.164**
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)
tertiary education0.187**0.165**0.104**0.179**
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
secondary education0.120**0.107**0.049*0.146**
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
income0.144**0.145**0.168**0.159**
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)
income2-0.006**-0.006**-0.008**-0.007**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
lngdppc0.099**0.075*0.538**0.093*
(0.04)(0.04)(0.04)(0.04)
Inflation-0.009**-0.009**0.003**-0.007**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
unemployment-0.006**-0.010**0.022**0.004**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
GDP growth0.021**0.012**0.013**0.014**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
leftist ideology of government-0.298**-0.259**-0.254**-0.262**
(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)
right ideology of government-0.448**-0.471**-0.502**-0.496**
(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)
democracy0.117**0.0340.057*0.144**
(0.02)(0.03)(0.02)(0.03)
regulatory quality-0.088*0.190**0.507**0.127**
(0.04)(0.04)(0.04)(0.03)
number of observations29397

Mean values of the declared level of life-satisfaction by residents of post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries

Number of observationsMeanχ2statisticsp-value
Post-socialist countries516425.68119080,0001
Non-post-socialist countries653937.17

Corresponding measures of de jure and de facto rights’ protection

De jure rightDe facto right
Freedom of assembly: 1 - constitution provides the freedom of assembly 0 - constitution does not provide the freedom of assemblyCivil society participation index: - the extent to which major civil society organisations are routinely consulted by policymaker, how large is the involvement of people in CSOs; the extent to which women are prevented from participating; and the extent to which legislative candidate nomination within party organization is highly decentralized or made through party primaries
Freedom of religion: 1 - constitution provides the freedom of religion 0 - constitution does not provide the freedom of religionFreedom of religion index: - indicator specifying the extent to which individuals and groups have the right to choose a religion, change their religion and practice that religion in private or in public as well as to proselytize peacefully without being subject to restrictions by public authorities
Freedom of expression: 1 - constitution provides the freedom of expression or speech 0 - constitution does not provide the freedom of expression or speechFreedom of expression index: - indicator specifying the extent to which the government respects the freedom of press and media, the freedom of ordinary people to discuss political matters at home and in the public sphere, as well as the freedom of academic and cultural expression
Freedom from forced labour: 1 - constitution prohibits slavery, servitude or forced labour 0 - constitution does not prohibit slavery, servitude or forced labourFreedom from forced labour index: - the extent to which adult citizens are free from servitude and other kinds of forced labour
Freedom of movement: 1 - constitution provides the freedom of movement 0 - constitution does not provide the freedom of movementFreedom of movement : - the extent to which citizens are able to travel freely to and from the country and to emigrate without being subject to restrictions by public authorities

‘How much respect is there for individual human rights nowadays in this country?’ Comparison of the answers of respondents from post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries (as a percentage of total answers). Own work on the basis of WVS (2014).

Post-socialist countriesNon-post-socialist countries
1994–19981999–20042005–20092010–20141994–19981999–20042005–20092010–2014
There is a lot of respect for individual human rights0.020.050.020.070.010.110.160.14
There is some respect0.150.260.260.390.060.470.490.55
There is not much respect0.260.430.430.340.060.330.190.26
There is no respect at all0.140.260.120.100.000.070.020.03
Missing0.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.00
Not asked in survey0.410.000.140.080.860.000.130.00
No answer0.020.000.000.000.000.000.010.00
Don’t know0.020.050.020.070.010.110.160.14

The influence of empowerment rights gap on the level of life satisfaction of inhabitants of post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries (ordered probit model)

Post-socialistNon-post- socialistPost-socialistNon-post- socialistPost-socialistNon-post- socialistPost-socialistNon-post-socialist
civil society_gap-0.120**-0.224**
(0.01)(0.01)
religion_gap-0.075**-0.221**
(0.01)(0.01)
expression_gap-0.019*-0.191**
(0.01)(0.01)
move_gap-0.012*-0.160**
(0.01)(0.01)
age-0.033**-0.030**-0.032**-0.031**-0.033**-0.031**-0.033**-0.030**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
age20.000**0.000**0.000**0.000**0.000**0.000**0.000**0.000**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
female0.028**0.073**0.027**0.073**0.028**0.072**0.028**0.073**
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)
divorced-0.303**-0.470**-0.303**-0.466**-0.302**-0.465**-0.303**-0.468**
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
single-0.085**-0.378**-0.080**-0.382**-0.081**-0.385**-0.082**-0.383**
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
widowed-0.306**-0.371**-0.310**-0.365**-0.308**-0.366**-0.308**-0.369**
(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
children-0.005-0.005-0.007-0.004-0.006-0.003-0.006-0.001
(0.02)(0.01)(0.02)(0.01)(0.02)(0.01)(0.02)(0.01)
number of observations4947241585494724158549472415854947241585

Description and sources of variables

VariableDefinitionValuesSource
life_satisfactionrespondent’s life satisfaction (‘All things considered, how satisfied are you with your life as a whole these days?’)from 1 (satisfied) to 10 (dissatisfied)WVS (2015)
femalerespondent’s gender0 – male, 1 – femaleWVS (2015)
agerespondent’s ageWVS (2015)
age2respondent’s age squaredWVS (2015)
incomemonthly household incomeWVS (2015)
income2monthly household income squaredWVS (2015)
employmentrespondent’s employment status1 – self-employed, full-time employed, part-time employed, student; 0 - otherwiseWVS (2015)
marriedrespondent’s marital status1 – married or living together with someone as married, 0 – otherwiseWVS (2015)
divorcedrespondent’s marital status1– divorced, 0 – otherwiseWVS (2015)
widowedrespondent’s marital status1– widowed, 0 – otherwiseWVS (2015)
singlerespondent’s marital status1 – single, 0 – otherwiseWVS (2015)
healthrespondent’s subjective assessment of the state of healthbinary variables for the following categories of the state of health: very good, good, fair, poor, very poorWVS (2015)
educationrespondent’s highest educational level attainedbinary variables for the following categories of the level of education: tertiary education, secondary education, basic educationWVS (2015)
religiosityrespondent’s religiosity1 – a religious person, 0 – otherwiseWVS (2015)
lngdppcGDP per capita in logarithmVDem (2016)
inflationinflationVDem (2016)
GDP growthGDP growthVDem (2016)
unemploymentunemployment (% of labour force)World Bank (2018)
government ideologyideology of the chief’s executive partybinary variables for the following categories: leftist, right, centreDatabase of Political Institutions (2012)
democracythe extent to which an institutionalised democracy is present in a countryscale (1;2)VDem (2016)
regulatory qualityan index including measures of the incidence of market unfriendly policies such as price controls or inadequate bank supervision, as well as perceptions of the burdens imposed by excessive regulation in areas such as foreign trade and business developmentscale (-2; 2)VDem (2016)
government effectivenessthe index envisaging the quality of public service provision, the quality of the bureaucracy, the competence of civil servants, the independence of the civil service from political pressures, and the credibility of the government’s commitment to policiesscale (-2; 2)VDem (2016)
expression_dfthe extent to which government respects press & media scale freedom, the freedom of ordered people to discuss political matters at home and in the public sphere, as well as the freedom of academic and cultural expression(0;1)VDem (2016)
civil society_dfThe extent to which major civil society organisations scale are routinely consulted by policymaker; how large is the involvement of people in CSOs; the extent to which women are prevented from participating; and the extent to which legislative candidate nomination within party organization is highly decentralized or made through party primaries(0;1)VDem (2016)
religion_dfthe extent to which citizens enjoy freedom of religion scale(-3; 3)VDem (2016)
move_dfthe extent to which citizens are able to travel freely to and scale from the country and to emigrate without being subject to restrictions by public authorities(-1; 3)VDem (2016)

The influence of empowerment rights’ gap on the level of happiness gap between post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries (ordered probit model) – with additional individual, macroeconomic and institutional characteristics added

(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10)
transition-0.309** (0.02)-0.331** (0.02)-0.324** (0.02)-0.336** (0.02)-0.343** (0.02)-0.012* (0.04)-0.004* (0.04)-0.002* (0.04)-0.008* (0.04)-0.063* (0.04)
civil society_gap-0.102** (0.01)0.035 (0.02)
religion_gap-0.069** (0.01)-0.408** (0.02)
expression_gap-0.088** (0.01)0.027 (0.02)
move_gap-0.123** (0.01)-0.158** (0.02)
age-0.036** (0.00)-0.036** (0.00)-0.037** (0.00)-0.036** (0.00)-0.036** (0.00)-0.033** (0.00)-0.033** (0.00)-0.032** (0.00)-0.033** (0.00)-0.032** (0.00)
age20.000** (0.00)0.000** (0.00)0.000** (0.00)0.000** (0.00)0.000** (0.00)0.000** (0.00)0.000** (0.00)0.000** (0.00)0.000** (0.00)0.000** (0.00)
female0.056** (0.01)0.057** (0.01)0.057** (0.01)0.056** (0.01)0.057** (0.01)0.046** (0.01)0.046** (0.01)0.040** (0.01)0.046** (0.01)0.050** (0.01)
divorced-0.280** (0.02)-0.284** (0.02)-0.282** (0.02)-0.282** (0.02)-0.283** (0.02)-0.294** (0.03)-0.294** (0.03)-0.304** (0.03)-0.294** (0.03)-0.290** (0.03)
single-0.164** (0.02)-0.166** (0.02)-0.165** (0.02)-0.166** (0.02)-0.169** (0.02)-0.180** (0.02)-0.180** (0.02)-0.196** (0.02)-0.179** (0.02)-0.190** (0.02)
widowed-0.225** (0.02)-0.225** (0.02)-0.224** (0.02)-0.224** (0.02)-0.224** (0.02)-0.186** (0.03)-0.186** (0.03)-0.188** (0.03)-0.186** (0.03)-0.185** (0.03)
children0.017 (0.01)0.011 (0.01)0.014 (0.01)0.012 (0.01)0.008 (0.01)0.040* (0.02)0.042* (0.02)0.034 (0.02)0.043* (0.02)0.019 (0.02)
good state of health-0.405** (0.01)-0.398** (0.01)-0.402** (0.01)-0.401** (0.01)-0.399** (0.01)-0.383** (0.02)-0.384** (0.02)-0.381** (0.02)-0.384** (0.02)-0.383** (0.02)
fair state of health-0.793** (0.01)-0.784** (0.01)-0.790** (0.01)-0.788** (0.01)-0.779** (0.01)-0.766** (0.02)-0.768** (0.02)-0.757** (0.02)-0.767** (0.02)-0.760** (0.02)
poor state of health-1.259** (0.02)-1.250** (0.02)-1.258** (0.02)-1.253** (0.02)-1.245** (0.02)-1.229** (0.03)-1.232** (0.03)-1.209** (0.03)-1.231** (0.03)-1.224** (0.03)
very poor state of health-1.658** (0.05)-1.654** (0.05)-1.655** (0.05)-1.655** (0.05)-1.639** (0.05)-1.563** (0.09)-1.565** (0.09)-1.541** (0.09)-1.566** (0.09)-1.560** (0.09)
religiosity0.168** (0.01)0.172** (0.01)0.172** (0.01)0.173** (0.01)0.170** (0.01)0.169** (0.01)0.169** (0.01)0.166** (0.01)0.169** (0.01)0.168** (0.01)
tertiary education0.100**0.090**0.098**0.093**0.091**0.084**0.086**0.076**0.085**0.087**
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
secondary education0.063**0.058**0.061**0.059**0.065**0.051**0.050**0.048*0.050**0.072**
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)(0.02)
income0.111**0.117**0.113**0.117**0.115**0.129**0.129**0.120**0.128**0.129**
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)
income2-0.005**-0.005**-0.005**-0.005**-0.005**-0.006**-0.006**-0.005**-0.006**-0.006**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
lngdppc0.333**0.289**0.321**0.295**0.235**0.196**0.197**0.130**0.198**0.175**
(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.01)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)(0.03)
Inflation-0.000**-0.000**-0.000**-0.000**-0.000**-0.011**-0.010**-0.013**-0.010**-0.012**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
unemployment-0.005**-0.005**-0.005**-0.005**-0.007**-0.012**-0.012**-0.024**-0.012**-0.012**
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
GDP growth0.011**0.014**0.013**0.014**0.016**0.0040.004-0.0040.0040.003
(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)
leftist ideology of government-0.339** (0.03)-0.332** (0.03)-0.238** (0.03)-0.336** (0.03)-0.334** (0.03)
right ideology of government-0.359** (0.04)-0.351** (0.04)-0.296** (0.04)-0.352** (0.04)-0.398** (0.04)
democracy-0.066** (0.02)-0.057** (0.02)-0.104** (0.02)-0.061** (0.02)-0.088** (0.02)
regulatory quality-0.084 (0.04)-0.090* (0.04)-0.145** (0.04)-0.083 (0.04)-0.123** (0.04)
government effectiveness0.221** (0.03)0.238** (0.04)0.263** (0.03)0.225** (0.04)0.171** (0.04)
with time effects
number of observations25095

Countries included in the analyses

Post-socialist countriesDeveloped non-post-socialist countries
1994–1998Albania, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Bulgaria, Belarus, Czech Rep., Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Ukraine, Macedonia, Bosnia, Serbia, MontenegroAustralia, Finland, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United States
1999–2004Albania, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, MacedoniaCanada, Japan, South Korea, Spain, United States
2005–2009Bulgaria, Georgia, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, Ukraine, Serbia and MontenegroAustralia, Canada, Cyprus, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Great Britain, United States
2010–2014Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, Ukraine, UzbekistanAustralia, Cyprus, Germany, Japan, South Korea, Netherlands, New Zealand, Spain, Sweden, United States
eISSN:
2543-6821
Language:
English
Publication timeframe:
Volume Open
Journal Subjects:
Business and Economics, Political Economics, Economic Theory, Systems and Structures, Microeconomics, Macroecomics, Public Finance and Fiscal Theory
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